
大量研究指出紫外线(UV)辐射对生物有机体有害,并且危害人类健康。对地表UV-B辐射强度增加的研究极大地促进了地基和空基相关观测项目的发展;人们还需要进一步对UV辐射的观测、建模和影响进行深入研究。本书各章描述了过去30年来世界范围内与UV辐射相关的研究工作,涉及的领域有:① UV辐射的当前与预测水平及其对生态系统、人类健康、经济与社会的影响;② UV辐射观测仪器的最新发展,地基和空基观测仪器定标进展情况以及观测方法,建模与有关应用;③ 全球气候变化对紫外线辐射的影响。
对于涉及全球气候变化、气象学、气候学、环境科学、生物学和农林科学的大专院校高年级本科生、研究生和教师,本书是一本很有价值的参考书。相关领域的科学家、决策者和普通公众亦能受益于此书。
Over the past three decades, the scientific community has realized the urgency of obtaining a better understanding of the interaction between the earth's atmosphere/ biosphere and the sun's radiant energy. Most of the research has focused on the radiant energy balances in the solar and infrared regions of the spectrum, and the way these energy flows affect the climate. During this same time frame, in a related arena, a smaller group of dedicated individuals has concentrated on the role of ultraviolet (UV) radiation as it affects the overall welfare of the planet. Although comprising only a small fraction of the radiation balance that may play a role in global climate change over the next centuries, UV radiation has the capacity to cause direct and more immediate harm to virtually all living organisms and especially to human health. Cumulative high doses of UV radiation are considered a major causal factor in the development of skin cancer and cataracts. Ultraviolet radiation can weaken the human immune system, and can also affect crop production and ocean bio-productivity.
Concerns about the increased levels of UV-B radiation reaching the earth's surface have led to the development of ground- and space-based measurement programs to provide long-term records of its levels. Accurate long-term measurements are difficult to obtain, especially when limited to the bandwidth regions that contain the most harmful solar photons. A core of concerned scientists from across the globe realizes that much work is needed in quantifying the harmful radiation levels and defining their adverse effects. In assessing the effects of UV-B radiation, it is important to realize the complexity of the interactions of living organisms that cause adverse responses with radiant energy directly, as well as in combination with other climate stressors, such as drought, increased temperatures, and CO2.
This book addresses work that has been conducted throughout the world over the past three decades, such as: (1) current efforts for establishing a climatology of UV radiation; (2) modeling the UV component and its impact on ecosystems, human health, and related economic and social implications; (3) new developments in UV instrumentation, advances in calibration (ground-based and satellite-based) measurement methods; and (4) the effects of global climate change on UV radiation. All chapters, including the review chapters, have been solicited from renowned scientists in their research fields of UV radiation, meteorology, the environment, and ecosystems. They have presented their work based on research at the global scale, taking into consideration possible future developments. Many new techniques and methods developed from space-ground measurements, mathematical modeling, and remote sensing have recently become available, yet have not previously been presented. This book will be a useful source of reference for undergraduate and graduate students who are involved in the study of global change, environmental science, meteorology, climatology, biology, and agricultural and forest sciences. It will also benefit scientists in related research fields, as well as professors, policy makers, and the general public.
As editors of this book, we wish to express our great appreciation for the contributions of many individuals. We are indebted to the over 50 authors and co-authors within the scientific community who have shared their expertise and contributed much time and effort in the preparation of the book chapters. We also wish to give credit to the numerous funding sources promoting the scientific research performed, and thus the valuable findings shared by the authors. We express our appreciation to the many reviewers and expert scientists who took the time to offer valuable comments and suggestions for the improvement of the book chapters. We acknowledge the management and editorial assistance of Laurie Richards and the technical support of Jonathan Straube of the Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University and Tsinghua University Press and Springer-Verlag. We especially want to express our appreciation for the support of the Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service (CSREES) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the USDA UV-B Monitoring and Research Program at Colorado State University. The efforts of many individuals including Drs. John Moore, John Davis, Steve Liu, Ni-Bin Chang, Mr. George Janson, and Ms. Rita Deike are appreciated.
Dr. Wei Gao
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO
Dr. Daniel Schmoldt
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Washington, D.C.
May 2009
Contents
List of Contributors xiii
1 A Climatology of UV Radiation, 1979-2000, 65S-65N 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Method 2
1.3 Results 6
1.3.1 Satellite-Derived UV Climatologies 6
1.3.2 Comparison with Ground-Based Measurements 14
1.3.3 Discussion of Uncertanties 16
1.4 Conclusions 17
Acknowledgements 17
References 18
2 Balancing the Risks and Benefits of Ultraviolet Radiation 21
2.1 Introduction 22
2.2 Long Term Changes in UVEry 22
2.3 Geographical Variability in UVEry 23
2.4 Peak UV 24
2.4.1 Peak UV Index 24
2.4.2 Peak UV Daily Dose 28
2.5 Comparing Weighting Functions for Erythema and Vitamin D 29
2.6 Seasonal and Diurnal Variation of UVEry and UVVitD 31
2.7 Global Climatologies of UVEry and UVVitD 33
2.8 Relationship Between UVVitD and UVEry 36
2.9 Production of Vitamin D from Sunlight 38
2.10 Calculation of Optimal Times for Exposure to Sunlight 38
2.11 An Inconsistency 42
2.12 Conclusions 44
Acknowledgements 45
References 45
3 Climatology of Ultraviolet Radiation at High Latitudes Derived from
Measurements of the National Science Foundation's Ultraviolet Spec-
tral Irradiance Monitoring Network 48
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Data Analysis 51
3.2.1 Data 51
3.2.2 Establishment of Climatologies 52
3.2.3 Estimates of Historical UV Indices 52
3.3 UV Index Climatology 56
3.3.1 South Pole 56
3.3.2 McMurdo Station 57
3.3.3 Palmer Station 59
3.3.4 Ushuaia 60
3.3.5 San Diego 60
3.3.6 Barrow 61
3.4 Climatology of UV-A Irradiance 62
3.5 Comparison of Radiation Levels at Network Sites 65
3.6 Conclusions and Outlook 69
Acknowledgements 70
References 70
4 UV Solar Radiation in Polar Regions: Consequences for the
Environment and Human Health 73
4.1 Introduction 74
4.2 Networks and Databanks 76
4.3 Impact of Solar UV on the Environment 79
4.3.1 Effect of the Environment on Solar UV 85
4.4 Impact of Solar UV on Human Health 88
4.4.1 Information and Protection Programs 92
4.4.2 Dosimetry, UV Modeling, and Instruments 93
4.5 Concluding Remarks 98
References 99
5 Changes in Ultraviolet and Visible Solar Irradiance 1979 to 2008 106
5.1 Introduction 106
5.2 Instrumentation 112
5.3 Detection of Long-Term Change 121
5.3.1 Radiation Amplification Factor 122
5.3.2 Different Definitions of RAF 125
5.3.3 Estimating UV Trends: Discussion 126
5.3.4 Reduction of UV Irradiance by Clouds and Aerosols 128
5.3.5 Stokes Derivation of CT(1R)/(1RG) 130
5.3.6 UV Absorption 132
5.3.7 Estimating Zonal Average UV Change 132
5.3.8 Estimating UV Trends: Satellites 133
5.3.9 Estimating UV Trends: Ground-Based 138
5.4 UV in the Polar Regions 139
5.5 Human Exposure to UV 140
5.6 UV Index and Units 143
5.7 Action Spectra and Irradiance Trends 143
5.8 UV Summary 151
Appendix 5.1 Calculating RAF() 153
Acknowledgements 155
References 155
6 The Brewer Spectrophotometer 160
6.1 Introduction 160
6.2 History 161
6.3 The Instrument 163
6.3.1 The Fore-Optics 165
6.3.2 The Spectrometer 166
6.3.3 The Photomultiplier Housing 168
6.3.4 Support Electronics 169
6.3.5 The Control Computer 170
6.4 Corrections Applied to Data 170
6.4.1 Dark Count 170
6.4.2 Dead Time 171
6.4.3 Stray Light 172
6.4.4 Temperature Response 172
6.4.5 Neutral Density Filters 173
6.4.6 Cosine Response 173
6.4.7 Internal Polarization 174
6.5 Measurement of Total Ozone 175
6.5.1 Measurement Technique 175
6.5.2 Calibration 177
6.6 Measurement of Spectral UV Radiation 179
6.7 Measurement of Other Atmospheric Variables 181
6.7.1 Vertical Profile of Ozone 182
6.7.2 Atmospheric SO2 182
6.7.3 Atmospheric NO2 183
6.7.4 Aerosol Optical Depth 183
6.7.5 Effective Temperature of Atmospheric Ozone 184
6.8 The Brewer Spectrophotometer as a Powerful Research Tool 185
6.9 Summary 186
Acknowledgements 186
References 186
7 Techniques for Solar Dosimetry in Different Environments 192
7.1 Introduction 192
7.2 UV Dosimetry and Minimization Strategies 194
7.3 Miniaturization of Polysulphone Dosimeters 195
7.4 Measurements on Plants 197
7.5 Long-Term UV Dosimeters 199
7.6 Vitamin D Effective UV Dosimetry 200
7.7 Discussion and Conclusions 201
References 202
8 An Ultraviolet Radiation Monitoring and Research Program for
Agriculture 205
8.1 Introduction 206
8.2 Introduction to the USDA UVMRP (Purpose and History) 207
8.3 Monitoring Network 208
8.3.1 Sites and Coverage 208
8.3.2 Data Products Provided by UVMRP 209
8.4 Data Collection and Processing 210
8.4.1 UV-MFRSR Data Processing 212
8.4.2 Erythemally Weighted UV Irradiance 215
8.4.3 Langley Analysis 219
8.4.4 Data Processing for Other Measurements 221
8.5 Derived Products 222
8.5.1 Optical Depth 223
8.5.2 Daily Column Ozone 224
8.5.3 Synthetic Spectrum Data 225
8.6 Database Design and Website Interface 227
8.6.1 The Data 227
8.7 UVMRP's Role in UV-B Agricultural Effects Studies 229
8.7.1 Mississippi State University 230
8.7.2 Purdue University 230
8.7.3 Utah State University 231
8.7.4 University of Maryland 231
8.7.5 Washington State University 231
8.7.6 University of Illinois-Chicago 232
8.7.7 Highlights of Other Collaborations 232
8.8 Modeling of Agricultural Sustainability 233
8.9 Future Considerations 234
8.10 Summary 235
Acknowledgements 237
References 237
9 Radiative Transfer in the Coupled Atmosphere-Snow-Ice-Ocean
(CASIO) System: Review of Modeling Capabilities 244
9.1 Introduction 245
9.2 Radiative Transfer Modeling 247
9.2.1 Sun-Earth Geometry 247
9.2.2 Spectrum of Solar Radiation 248
9.2.3 Atmospheric Vertical Structure 249
9.2.4 Light Interaction with Absorbing and Scattering Media 250
9.2.5 Equation of Radiative Transfer 256
9.2.6 Surface Reflection and Transmission 257
9.2.7 Radiative Transfer in a Coupled Atmosphere-Snow-Ice-Ocean
(CASIO) System 258
9.3 Sample Applications of the Theory 259
9.3.1 Comparison of Modeled Irradiances in CAO Systems 259
9.3.2 Measured and Modeled Radiation Fields in Sea Ice 261
9.3.3 Radiation Trapping in Sea Ice 261
9.3.4 Impact of Ozone Depletion on Primary Productivity 263
9.4 Discussion and Conclusions 264
Acknowledgements 265
References 265
10 Comparative Analysis of UV-B Exposure Between Nimbus 7/TOMS
Satellite Estimates and Ground-Based Measurements 270
10.1 Introduction 271
10.2 Materials and Methods 274
10.2.1 USDA UV-B Dataset 274
10.2.2 TOMS Dataset 274
10.2.3 UV Index 276
10.2.4 Comparative Analysis 276
10.3 Results and Discussion 277
10.3.1 UV-I Daily Change Analysis 277
10.3.2 Analysis of UV-I Variability 279
10.3.3 UV-I Spatial Analysis 281
10.4 Conclusions 287
Acknowledgements 289
References 289
11 Ultraviolet Radiation and Its Interaction with Air Pollution 291
11.1 Introduction 291
11.1.1 Factors Affecting UV Flux at the Earth's Surface 292
11.2 Optics of the Atmosphere 301
11.2.1 Scattering 301
11.2.2 Absorption 303
11.2.3 Emission 304
11.2.4 Atmospheric Optical Depth 304
11.2.5 Single Scatter Albedo 309
11.2.6 Asymmetry Factor 310
11.2.7 Angstrom's Exponent 310
11.3 Models and Measurements 310
11.4 Summary 325
References 326
12 Urban Forest Influences on Exposure to UV Radiation and Potential
Consequences for Human Health 331
12.1 Introduction 332
12.2 Effects of Solar UV on Human Health and Epidemiology 333
12.2.1 Sunburn 333
12.2.2 Skin Types 336
12.2.3 Immune Function 336
12.2.4 Skin Cancers 336
12.2.5 Eye Diseases 339
12.2.6 Sunscreen Effectiveness 339
12.2.7 Positive Impacts 339
12.3 UV Climatology 344
12.3.1 Ozone Trends 344
12.4 Urban Structural Influences 346
12.4.1 Sky Radiance and Diffuse Fraction 346
12.4.2 UV Reflectivity 347
12.4.3 Tree and Building Influences on UV 347
12.4.4 Human Exposure 356
12.5 Public Health Information 357
12.6 Conclusions 358
Acknowledgements 359
References 360
13 Solar UV-B Radiation and Global Dimming: Effects on Plant
Growth and UV-Shielding 370
13.1 Introduction 371
13.1.1 Global Dimming and UV-B: Potential Effects on
Plants 371
13.1.2 Assessing Global Dimming and UV-B Effects on
Plant Growth 372
13.2 Methods 374
13.2.1 Field Site 374
13.2.2 Structural and Biomass Measurements 375
13.2.3 UV-A Epidermal Transmittance Measurements 376
13.2.4 Solar UV and PAR Irradiance 376
13.2.5 Statistical Analyses 377
13.3 Results 377
13.3.1 UV-A Epidermal Transmittance 377
13.3.2 Dimming Effects on Biomass and Structure 381
13.4 Discussion 383
13.4.1 Global Dimming and UV-B Effects on Leaf Optical
Properties 384
13.4.2 Global Dimming and UV-B Effects on Productivity 384
13.4.3 Ecological Implications 385
13.5 Concluding Remarks 388
Acknowledgements 389
References 389
14 Effects of Ultraviolet-B Radiation and Its Interactions with Climate
Change Factors on Agricultural Crop Growth and Yield 395
14.1 Introduction 396
14.2 Abiotic Stress Factors and Crop Yield 400
14.3 Crop Responses to UV-B and Other Climate Change Factors 401
14.3.1 Specific Effects of UV-B Radiation on Plants 402
14.3.2 Strategies for Protection against UV-B Radiation 410
14.3.3 Crop Response to Atmospheric CO2 Concentration 412
14.3.4 Crop Response to Temperature 413
14.3.5 Crop Response to Drought 414
14.3.6 Crop Response to Multiple Abiotic Stress Factors 416
14.4 Abiotic Stress Tolerance and Cultivar Screening Tools 419
14.5 Climate Change and Aerobiology and Public Health 422
14.6 Concluding Remarks 423
Acknowledgements 424
References 424
15 Assessment of DNA Damage as a Tool to Measure UV-B Tolerance in
Soybean Lines Differing in Foliar Flavonoid Composition 437
15.1 Introduction 438
15.2 Materials and Methods 441
15.2.1 Plant Growth and UV Irradiation 441
15.2.2 Field Sampling 442
15.2.3 Analysis of Phenolics 443
15.2.4 Determination of DNA Lesions-Gel
Electrophoresis Method 443
15.2.5 Determination of DNA Lesions-Monoclonal
Antibody Method 446
15.2.6 Experimental Design and Statistical Analysis 446
15.3 Results and Discussion 446
15.3.1 Leaf Phenolics 446
15.3.2 DNA Damage 448
15.4 Conclusions 452
Acknowledgements 453
References 453
16 Physiological Impacts of Short-Term UV Irradiance Exposures on
Cultivars of Glycine Max 458
16.1 Introduction 459
16.2 Materials and Methods 461
16.2.1 Plant Material and Greenhouse Growth Conditions 461
16.2.2 UV Treatment 462
16.2.3 UV Exposure Regimes 463
16.2.4 Stomatal Conductance Measurements 466
16.2.5 Photosynthesis and Transpiration Measurements 467
16.2.6 Pigment Analyses 467
16.2.7 UV-B Absorbing Compounds 468
16.3 Results and Discussion 469
16.3.1 Stomatal Conductance 469
16.3.2 Transpiration 473
16.3.3 Photosynthesis 476
16.3.4 Water Use Efficiency 478
16.3.5 UV-B Absorbing Compounds and Leaf Pigments 478
16.4 Summary and Conclusions 481
Acknowledgements 483
References 483
17 UV-Effects on Young Seedlings of Soybean: Effects in Early
Development and Long-Term Effects 488
17.1 Introduction 488
Main Objectives 492
17.2 Results and Discussion 492
17.2.1 UV Effects on Early Development and Survival of
Young Soybean 492
17.2.2 Surviving Soybean: the Affect on Seed Production 496
17.2.3 Assessment of Phenylpropanoids in Response to UV 498
17.3 Conclusions 499
17.4 Methods 500
17.4.1 Plant Materials and Accessions 500
17.4.2 Plant Growth and Preparation of Tissue 500
17.4.3 Chemicals 501
17.4.4 UV Radiation Sources and Treatments 501
17.4.5 Metabolome Studies 501
Acknowledgements 502
References 502
18 Characteristics of UV-B Radiation Tolerance in Broadleaf Trees in
Southern USA 509
18.1 Introduction 510
18.2 Methodology 514
18.2.1 Plant Materials 514
18.2.2 Measuring Leaf Optical Properties 514
18.2.3 Measuring the Light Penetration and Distribution
within Leaf Tissues 515
18.2.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy and Light Microscopy
of Leaves 517
18.2.5 Measurements of UV-B Absorbing Compounds and
Chlorophyll Concentrations 517
18.2.6 Statistical Analysis 518
18.3 Results and Discussion 518
18.3.1 Leaf Optical Properties 518
18.3.2 Depth of Light Penetration into Leaf Tissues 519
18.3.3 The Concentration of Leaf UV-B Absorbing
Compounds 522
18.3.4 Correlations among the UV-B Related Variables
within and among the Species 524
18.4 Conclusions 527
Acknowledgements 527
References 528
Index 531
List of Contributors
Julia Lee-Taylor1, Sasha Madronich1, Christopher Fischer1, and Bernhard Mayer2
1National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado, USA
2Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany
Richard L. McKenzie and J Ben Liley
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA),
Lauder, Central Otago, New Zealand 9352
NIWA Lauder, Private Bag 50061 Omakau, Central Otago 9352, New Zealand
E-mail: r.mckenzie@niwa.co.nz
E-mail: b.liley@niwa.co.nz
Germar Bernhard, Charles R. Booth, and James C. Ehramjian
5340 Riley Street
Biospherical Instruments Inc., San Diego, CA, USA
E-mail: bernhard@biospherical.com
E-mail: booth@biospherical.com
E-mail: jime@biospherical.com
Claudio Rafanelli, Alessandro Damiani, Elena Benedetti, Sara. De Simone,
Andrea Anav, Luigi Ciattaglia, and Ivo Di Menno
ICES - International Center for Earth Sciences
c/o CNR - Istituto di Acustica "O.M. Corbino"
Area della Ricerca "Roma - Tor Vergata"
via del Fosso del Cavaliere, 100
00133 - Roma, Italy
E-mail: c.rafanelli@e-ices.eu (rafanelli@libero.it)
Jay Herman
Goddard Space Flight Center
Code 613.3
Greenbelt, MD 20771 USA
E-mail: jay.r.herman@nasa.gov
James B. Kerr
Scientist Emeritus of Environment Canada
4396 Kingscote Road, V0R 1N2
Cowichan Bay, British Columbia
E-mail: jbkerr@shaw.ca
Alfio V. Parisi, David J. Turnbull, Peter Schouten, Nathan Downs and Joanna Turner
Centre for Rural and Remote Area Health, University of Southern Queensland,
Toowoomba
Queensland, Australia 4350
E-mail: parisi@usq.edu.au
Wei Gao1, John M. Davis1, Roger Tree1, James R. Slusser1,
and Daniel Schmoldt2
1United States Department of Agriculture
UV-B Monitoring and Research Program
Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
E-mail: wgao@uvb.nrel.colostate.edu
2United States Department of Agriculture
Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service
Washington, DC, USA
E-mail: dschmoldt@csrees.usda.gov
Knut Stamnes,1 B?rge Hamre,2 and Jakob J. Stamnes2
1Light and Life Laboratory, Department of Physics and Engineering Physics,
Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
E-mail: Knut.Stamnes@stevens.edu
2Department of Physics and Technology, University of Bergen, Postboks 7800, 5020 Bergen, Norway
B?rge.Hamre@ift.uib.no
E-mail: Jakob.Stamnes@ift.uib.no
Wei Gao1, Zhiqiang Gao1,2, and Ni-Bin Chang3
1USDA UV-B Monitoring and Research Program,
Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory,
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
E-mail: wgao@uvb.nrel.colostate.edu
E-mail: zgao@uvb.nrel.colostate.edu
2Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
3Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA
E-mail: nchang@mail.ucf.edu
William F. Barnard1 and Brian N. Wenny2
1North Carolina State University
Department of Marine, Earth, and Atmospheric Sciences
Campus Box 8208
Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-8208, USA
E-mail: SBarn46193@aol.com
2MODIS Characterization Support Team (MCST) Sigma Space Corp.
10210 Greenbelt Road, Suite 500
Lanham, MD 20706
E-mail: brian.wenny@gmail.com
Gordon M. Heisler
USDA Forest Service Northeastern Research Station,
c/o SUNY ESF, 5 Moon Library, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
E-mail: gheisler@fs.fed.us
Ronald J. Ryel1, Stephan D. Flint1, and Paul W. Barnes2
1Department of Wildland Resources and the Ecology Center, Utah State University
Logan, UT 84322-5230, USA
E-mail: ron.ryel@usu.edu
2Department of Biological Sciences, Loyola University New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
E-mail: pwbarnes@loyno.edu
K. Raja Reddy1, P.V. Vara Prasad2, and Shardendu K. Singh1
1Deaprtment of Plant and Soil Sciences, Box 9555, 117 Dorman Hall
Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA
E-mail: krreddy@pss.msstate.edu
2Department of Agronomy, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
E-mail: vara@ksu.edu
Joseph H. Sullivan1, Linda C. Pope, Betsy M. Sutherland2, Paula V. Bennett2, James E. Blum3, Ann E. Stapleton4, and Dennis C. Gitz Ⅲ5
1Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, 2122 Plant Sciences Building University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
E-mail: jsull@umd.edu
2Brookhaven National Laboratory, P.O. Box 5000
Upton, NY 11973-5000, USA
E-mail: bms@bnl.gov
3Department of Mathematics and Statistics
University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28403, USA
E-mail: blumj@uncw.edu
4Department of Biology and Marine Biology
University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28403, USA
E-mail: stapletona@uncw.edu
5USDA-ARS, 3810 4th Street, Lubbock, Texas 79415, USA
Richard H. Grant1, Kent G. Apostol2, and Hans F. Schmitz1
1Department of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2054, USA
E-mail: rgrant@purdue.edu
E-mail: hschmitz@purdue.edu
2Department of Biological Sciences, Bethel University, St. Paul, MN 55112, USA
E-mail: k-apostol@bethel.edu
Katherine M. Warpeha and Lon S. Kaufman
Department of Biological Sciences m/c 567
University of Illinois at Chicago
900 S. Ashland Ave
Chicago, IL 60607, USA
E-mail: kwarpeha@uic.edu
E-mail: lkaufman@uic.edu
Yadong Qi1, Gordon M. Heisler2, Wei Gao3, Thomas C. Vogelmann4, and Shuju Bai5
1Urban Forestry Program, P.O. Box 11288, Southern University
Baton Rouge, LA 70813, USA
E-mail: yadong_qi@subr.edu
2USDA Forest Service Northeastern Research Station, c/o SUNY ESF,
5 Moon Library, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
E-mail: gheisler@fs.fed.us
3USDA UV-B Radiation Monitoring Program, and Senior Research Scientist, Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO 80523-1499, USA
E-mail: wgao@uvb.nrel.colostate.edu
4Botany Department, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA
E-mail: Thomas.Vogelmann@uvm.edu
5Department of Computer Science, Southern University
Baton Rouge, LA 70813, USA
E-mail: bais@cmps.subr.edu
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